Delving deeper into OpenAI's newest no-code tool "GPTs".

OpenAI's recent DevDay brought a significant announcement: the introduction of custom GPTs. ChatGPT Plus users can now create their own bespoke GPT chatbots, accessible to other Plus members.
Initially, I viewed GPTs with some skepticism, seeing them as merely a ChatGPT prompt wizard interface—a more refined UI than standard GPT-4, equipped with predefined prompts.
However, after spending more time exploring these GPTs, my perspective has shifted. The transformative potential of a user-friendly interface is substantial, especially in creating bots for non-technical users and broadening their use.
The OpenAI documentation is still evolving, so I find it useful to share what I’ve learned from creating my own GPTs.








Study recall coach
The most ambitious GPT I've developed is the Study Recall Coach. It's based on the evidence-backed Free Recall study technique, where students recall as much as they can about a topic on a blank sheet of paper, ideally in a mind map format. I've previously written about this practice in this article:

With GPTs' access to image upload and web browsing, I developed a version that can:

Ingest a topic via file upload or web link.

Upload, read, and understand students' hand-drawn recall notes, even in mind map format!

Conduct an error correction phase with feedback and generate a gap list.

Recommend the next revision date based on performance and spaced repetition best practices.

Here's an example where I posted a link to a basic heart anatomy article and uploaded my FreeForm mind map doodle to the Study Recall Coach GPT:
















I was impressed with its analysis of my poorly drawn heart and challenging handwriting.
This tool could be highly beneficial for students, aiding in more effective study sessions. Currently, it's limited to those with a ChatGPT Pro account.
If you have a Pro account, you can try my Study Recall Coach GPT. 
Efficient Learner GPT
This simpler GPT was trained on my articles about scientifically backed study techniques. I uploaded the documents as a knowledge source, provided a simple prompt, and the app worked on the first attempt:








If you have a ChatGPT Pro account, you can try Efficient Learning GPT. 
Choose Your Adventure
Inspired by one of my favorite childhood book experiences, the Choose Your Own Adventure series, this GPT lets you steer the story's path based on decisions made at key points.








I requested illustrations to accompany the text, aiming for a retro 1970s to 1980s science fiction aesthetic. The results were mixed, with either no images generated or a more modern, futuristic 3D style, as seen above.
If you have a ChatGPT Pro account, you can try Choose Your Adventure GPT.
Summary
In my experience with the new GPTs UI, I found it intuitive, yet I preferred bypassing the instruction wizard in favour of directly using the 'Configure' option for more streamlined control. While the UI is helpful for non-technical users, I believe that more serious AI applications will likely utilise the OpenAI API directly, developing their own apps on their own domains for enhanced control over conversations and external integrations. Also, there were instances where the bots behaved unpredictably, indicating that until OpenAI addresses these issues, GPTs may not be widely adopted for serious use.
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Uncovering GPTs; just a prompt wizard for ChatGPT? 

A tectonic shift is coming to education, and it's powered by AI

It's been a monumental week for new AI tech across the industry. We're stepping into a time where AI is everywhere. I'll cover as much as I can, sharing my thoughts on how these updates will affect the EdTech scene and where it might lead us.
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ChatGPT goes multimodal 
OpenAI rolled out updates for speech and image recognition. Among these, image recognition has made the most significant impact on the community to date. Additionally, the advancements in voice conversation technology are bringing us a step closer to more natural interactions between humans and robots.
Image recognition is “magical”
ChatGPT now goes beyond just text recognition in an image; it also explains every part of an image of a human cell, much like a tutor would:







ChatGPT helping us understand this image of a human cell. @mckaywrigley
It extends its capability further, demonstrating an understanding of complex concepts, as seen in this example:







@skirano
It also appears proficient at grasping flowcharts, workflows and discerning the logical connections between processes:







@youraimarketer
And it performs well in recognising handwriting (see image below). Maybe this could be used as a study aid in Free recall sessions, where a student could draw a MindMap while recalling a topic, and an AI mentor could assist in filling in the gaps. I won’t be able to verify if this is effective until I have access to the image recognition feature, so a thorough assessment will have to wait until then. For more insights on this technique, please refer to my previous article:








@mckaywrigley
In another instance, a Pro user uploaded a screenshot of a SaaS dashboard UI and tasked ChatGPT with writing the code for it!








It's precisely for this reason I envision a future where all software will be Open Source: AI generated rip offs of will eventually get good enough to replace closed source incumbents.
DALL·E 3: Goodbye prompts, hello text







Prompt: An illustration of an avocado sitting in a therapist's chair, saying 'I just feel so empty inside' with a pit-sized hole in its center. The therapist, a spoon, scribbles notes.
OpenAI’s image generation service DALL·E 3 will use ChatGPT to generate tailored, detailed prompts so you don't have to; which previously necessitated users to learn prompt engineering. If you like a particular image, but it’s not quite right, you can ask ChatGPT to make tweaks with just a few words.
Furthermore, this new feature allows for the insertion of text within images. This advancement could revolutionise the workflow for Graphic Designers in EdTech, whose primary task often revolves around creating text-rich images.
Currently in research preview, this feature is set to launch for ChatGPT Plus and Enterprise users come October.
The Metaverse and AI tutor avatars: Future of education?
Often roasted for his metaverse tech demos, Zuckerberg appears to have blown away internet users with his latest avatar tech in 3D metaverse. 








In a recent podcast episode, Mark Zuckerberg and Lex Fridman showcased the potential of the metaverse through a conversation using photorealistic avatars, facilitated by Meta's technology. While critics had been skeptical of Meta's metaverse, this demonstration impressed many with its realistic interaction. The technology, Codec Avatars, aims for fully photorealistic, real-time avatars, although mainstream adoption may still be a few years away due to high technical requirements.
Photorealistic avatars and immersive metaverse environments could provide a more humanised and realistic online learning experience, facilitating better student-teacher and peer interactions. 
Zuckerberg also mentioned they are working on AI avatars that could be summoned into a virtual meeting space. The infusion of a capable AI tutor into a realistic 3D avatar would be amazing.
This development could potentially elevate the effectiveness of online education, bringing it closer to the impact of traditional in-person learning. However, with a $500 price tag for the new Oculus 3 headset, I still believe VR for mass education remains out of reach for most. There needs to be a pivotal event at the scale of mobile phone proliferation for AR/VR to appeal to all. Nonetheless, I can envision this technology taking off within the realm of remote work.







 Meta has launched 28 more AIs in beta, with unique interests and personalities. Some are played by cultural icons and influencers, including Snoop Dogg, Tom Brady, Kendall Jenner(? -ed)
No mention of teacher or tutor AI bots in Meta's recent AI news release is notable. It perhaps underscores the existing limitations of AI models, which may not yet be at a point where they can be relied upon as authoritative sources for teaching. The risk of confabulation - the generation of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted information - poses a significant challenge, potentially undermining the trust and accuracy essential in an educational setting.
Despite the breathtaking advancements in AI, this silence could be a nod to a cautious approach, acknowledging that the technology hasn't fully matured to a point where it can replace or emulate the nuanced understanding and guidance provided by human educators.
Other AI news
Exciting Update from Dante AI.
Dante AI is an advanced custom AI chatbot service, trained on your own data. It’s a promising chatbot platform with potential applications in educational settings.
I may delve into a separate post on Dante AI, exploring its integration into existing Learning Management System (LMS) platforms, should there be interest.








There's an update this week where images from your uploaded documents or courseware are rendered in chat. Students can simply request an image by description. Neat!
Microsoft release AI prompts for education
Microsoft has curated a prompt library tailored for GPT-4, aimed at serving educators, students, and administrators alike. This could be a valuable resource for Instructional Designers and students. I am certainly looking forward to contributing my own prompts to this growing repository.
Microsoft releases AutoGen: AI agents
If you think AI chatBots are amazing, combining them to work together on a goal pushes what LLMs can do to another level. This is what Microsoft have done with their open source AutoGen codebase that allows developers create AI agents with goal setting and human intervention. 
AI agents are software entities that autonomously perform tasks in a specific environment. They gather data, make decisions based on that data, and then act. Some can also learn from their actions to improve future performance. Their primary purpose is to achieve particular goals, like making financial decisions, or navigating a self-driving car.
The areas where I see the most potential for AI agents in education are:

Content Creation: AI agents can aid in developing educational content and ensuring its accessibility.

Engagement: More realistic games and simulations can be created using different AI personalities or by incorporating devil's advocate viewpoints.

Getty made an AI generator that only trained on its licensed images








Getty Images, in collaboration with Nvidia, has launched a new tool called Generative AI by Getty Images, allowing users to create images utilizing Getty's library of licensed photos. The AI tool, trained solely on Getty's extensive image library, provides users full copyright indemnification for commercial use of the generated images. It is integrated with Nvidia's Edify model, excels in rendering realistic human figures, although its illustration mode delivers more basic 2D renderings. The tool is priced based on prompt volume, separate from standard Getty Images subscriptions. Users gain perpetual, worldwide, and unlimited rights to the images they create with this tool, which also offers an API for integration into other workflows. More…
Final thought: Are AI chatbots laying the foundation for a new type of Operating System?
Andrej Karpathy of OpenAI, formally director of AI Tesla suggests that advanced language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT or Google’s PaLM are becoming more like the core part of a new kind of computer system (like Windows or OS X), rather than just chat tools. They handle various tasks such as managing text, sound, and visuals, running code, accessing the internet, and storing/retrieving information. The idea is that just as early computers were more than calculators, these LLMs are shaping up to be the foundation of a new computing era, not just chat helpers.
Will writing prompts take over software languages? Is English set to become the newest coding language? Are LLM chat interfaces poised to transform software UI as we know it?


Thanks for reading. Please let me know if you would like me to continue writing up these weekly reviews. I really appreciate if you could subscribe and share this article. 🙏


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Explosive AI breakthroughs unveiled this week

In the first instalment of this two-part series, I delved into the underlying principles that make learning both deep and broad. I explored the science behind effective learning strategies, from recursive and excursive learning to the importance of memory and retrieval.

Now, let's take those theories and put them into action.
In this comprehensive guide, six proven, interlinked learning techniques utilised by the top 1% of students are presented, each supported by scientific research (linked below).








The article outlines a blueprint for academic success, designed to take learners beyond rote memorisation and last-minute cramming. I have included prompts for AI chatbots like ChatGPT, allowing for a personalised, hands-on approach to mastering these techniques. This isn't merely a guide to learning—it's a guide to mastering the art of effective learning.
1. Priming
What is Priming?
Priming is a preparatory stage in the learning process that sets the groundwork for more effective and efficient learning later on. The idea is to get a quick overview or "big-picture" understanding of the material before diving into the details.
In educational contexts, priming refers to the initial exposure to material before detailed study. Students can think of it as reading the table of contents, summary, or even skimming through headings and subheadings before reading a book. It provides a "framework" in which to place the information they will learn later.
How to Prime

Quick Scan: Students should scan through the material quickly, focusing on headings, subheadings, and highlighted or bolded terms.

Visual Aids: A brief review of diagrams, charts, or any visual aids in the material is recommended.

Mind Map: Students can create a quick mind map or outline, jotting down the key topics they've noticed during their scan.

Why is Priming effective?

Contextualisation: Priming helps students contextualise the information, making it easier to place new knowledge into a pre-existing framework.

Enhanced Focus: Understanding the general structure allows students to focus on the details when they go through the material in-depth.

Cognitive Load: It reduces the cognitive load during the detailed study, as students are not encountering everything as brand new; they have a scaffold to build upon.

Facilitates 'Light-Bulb Moments': With a broader understanding, students can more easily experience those 'aha' moments, where everything clicks into place.

Can AI assist with Priming?
AI chatbots excel at summarising extensive amounts of text. While it might be tempting to use them for Priming, exercising caution is advised. Over-reliance on AI can have a detrimental impact on authentic learning.
2. Active Learning
What is Active Learning?
Active Learning is an approach that involves students actively engaging with the material they are learning, rather than passively receiving information. This form of learning requires higher cognitive effort and promotes better comprehension and retention of the material.
How to implement Active Learning
Maintaining a high level of focus and active participation is crucial during the learning event. Here are some strategies to ensure proper engagement:

Ask Questions: Students should pose questions either aloud or in their minds to stay actively engaged with the material. Emphasising "why" and "how" questions can compel learners to delve deeper, tying the information back to the broader context established during the Priming phase.

Take Notes: Jotting down only the main points can help organise thoughts.

Gap List: For concepts that are not immediately understood are added to a Gap List for future review (see below).

Participate: Active participation, whether in class discussions or interactive online forums, can further solidify understanding.

Why is active learning effective?
Active Learning leverages higher-order cognitive skills, such as analysis and application, which leads to deeper comprehension and long-lasting retention. Research has shown that students who engage in Active Learning are more likely to understand complex concepts and retain information over the long term.
AI prompt

I would like you to act as an example generator for me. When confronted with new and complex concepts, adding many and varied examples helps me better understand those concepts. I would like you to ask what concept I would like examples of. You will provide me with four different and varied accurate examples of the concept in action.

3. The Gap List
What is the Gap List?
The Gap List is a tool designed for targeted revision. It serves as a log of concepts not yet understood or incorrectly recalled during the initial learning or revision phases. This list complements and supports the Recursive and Excursive strategies discussed in my previous article.
How to Implement the Gap List

Identify any gaps in knowledge or errors made and add them to the list.

Keep track of the number of times a particular error occurs.

Note how the concept was initially learned—whether from a book, video, etc.—as well as any other contextual factors at the time of initial learning (e.g., commuting, in a library, listening to music).

Recommendation: Use Notion databases for tracking error counts and adding labels.

Why is the Gap List Effective?
Over time, the Gap List facilitates more personalised and effective learning. Students can refine their strategies based on the specific gaps they've identified.
By systematically tracking what isn't yet understood, the Gap List transforms these weaknesses into areas for targeted improvement, thereby enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of study sessions.
The list serves as a vital resource for targeted revision, helping students not only pinpoint what they need to focus on but also identify which learning methods may not be working for them.
AI prompts

Examine the list of knowledge gaps provided. Identify recurring errors or specific conditions that may have influenced these gaps. Summarize your findings and offer actionable insights along with concrete recommendations for improvement. {{INSERT LIST HERE}} 

3. Spaced Repetition
What is Spaced Repetition?
Spaced Repetition, also known as Distributed Practice, is a learning strategy that involves breaking up study sessions over an extended period. This technique contrasts with "cramming," where students try to absorb all the information in a single, intensive study session.
How to implement Spaced Repetition
The 12-Hour Rule
Conduct the first review of material within 12 hours of initial learning. This quick revisit, ideally after sleep, greatly enhances memory consolidation.
Flexible and adaptive timing
After the initial 12-hour review, it's generally advisable for the student to schedule the next revision a few days later. Subsequent revisions should ideally be spaced weeks and then eventually months apart. Increasingly longer intervals between study sessions optimises memory retention. Moreover, the timing should be adaptable based on the student's performance. If the student finds that they're retaining the information well, they could extend the time between revision sessions. Conversely, if the learner is struggling to remember, the intervals could be shortened.
Why is Spaced Repetition effective?
Spaced Repetition capitalises on the well researched spacing effect, a phenomenon well-documented in cognitive science. Information is better remembered and retained when study sessions are spaced out over time. The act of forgetting and then recalling information is crucial for effective learning. This method leverages the brain's natural processes for memory consolidation and retrieval, making it highly effective for long-term retention.
Bonus technique: Interleaving
A beneficial consequence of distributed practice is that revision topics naturally become interleaved over time, creating a varied learning experience. Research suggests that this interleaving enhances the brain's ability to differentiate between concepts, thereby improving comprehension and recall.
AI prompt

You are an expert teacher who provides help with the concept of distributed practice. You will ask me to describe the current topic I am learning and the past topic I want to include in distributed practice. Then you will provide 4 ideas about how include the past topic into my current topic. You will also provide 2 questions I can use to refresh my memory on the past topic.

4. Free Recall with Mind Maps
What is Free Recall?
Free recall is a learning technique that focuses on the active retrieval of information without the assistance of learning materials or cues, such as flashcards or quizzes. In this approach, learners jot down as many facts, concepts, or ideas about a topic as they can recall on a blank page.
Mind maps serve as an excellent supplement to this process by providing a structured, visual framework. This framework helps organise the information being recalled and illustrates the connections between various concepts.







Justin Sung, The Perfect Mindmap: 6 Step Checklist - YouTube
How to Use Free Recall with Mind Maps

Begin with a blank page and attempt to recall as much information as possible in the form of a mind map, without referring to any source material. Consider using "infinite canvas" software like FreeForm (iOS) or Concepts.

Aim to make your mind maps as non-verbal as possible. Incorporate imagery, icons, or even colours to stimulate visual memory and offer additional avenues for recall.

Organise and group ideas based on their logical relationships and sequence.

Use directional arrows to indicate associations between ideas.

Correction Phase
After completing the free recall session, it's crucial to refer back to the source material for corrections. This phase helps solidify what you've correctly recalled and identifies any gaps or mistakes, turning them into valuable learning opportunities. This process adds to the "Gap List" (as mentioned above), enhancing your understanding and improving future recall sessions.
Free recall should be performed in multiple rounds, utilising the Spaced Repetition techniques discussed earlier.
Why is Free Recall with Mind Maps effective?
Free recall leverages the principle that cognitive effort during the recall process leads to better memory retention and understanding.
The technique enhances the organisational process, minimising interference and aiding students in structuring their knowledge.
Mind maps emulate the interconnectedness of ideas and concepts, simplifying future retrieval of information. By drawing links or branches to connect different pieces of information, learners do more than just place facts on a page; they organise the data in a way that reflects cognitive associations.
By converting information into a visual format, learners essentially employ dual encoding strategies that cater to both verbal and visual memory systems.
6. Pre-Test Revision
What is Pre-Test Revision?
Pre-Test Revision is a targeted approach to studying that occurs in the lead-up to an examination. The primary aim is for students to consolidate their understanding of the subject matter and identify and rectify any gaps in knowledge.
How to implement Pre-Test Revision

Identify weak areas: Refer to the Gap List to pinpoint topics where understanding is lacking. Over time, the goal is to reduce the items on this list. For remaining challenging topics, rote learning methods such as flashcards can be employed.

Engage in Active Recall: Utilise quizzes and flashcards that require recall, not just recognition. Opt for questions that require short answers over basic multiple-choice questions, as they are proven to be more effective.

Time Management: Opt for shorter, more focused study sessions over lengthy all-nighters. This approach aligns better with how our memory and attention work.

Diversify Learning Methods: Don't just rely on reading. Use visual aids like diagrams or, even better, teach the material to someone else to deepen comprehension and facilitate retention.

Why is Pre-Test Revision effective?
Pre-Test Revision is effective for several reasons. First, it allows learners to identify and concentrate on their weak areas, turning them into strengths. Second, the active recall techniques employed, such as quizzes requiring short answers, are shown to improve memory retention. Third, breaking down study sessions into manageable chunks of time aligns with cognitive science findings about effective learning and memory retention. Lastly, the use of multiple learning methods accommodates different learning styles, thereby enhancing understanding and retention of the material.
AI prompts

You are a quiz creator of highly diagnostic quizzes. You will make good low-stakes tests and diagnostics. You will ask me what, specifically, should the quiz test. Once you have my answer you will construct several quizzes for me on that topic. The questions should be highly relevant and go beyond just facts. Avoid multiple choice questions. Use recall rather than recognition types only e.g short-answer reply. At the end of the quiz, you will provide an answer key and explain the right answer.

Please note for the following prompt: Given that current AI models can confabulate and carry inherent biases, it may be safer to invert the 'teach-to-learn' paradigm. In this approach, the AI acts as a 'simulated student,' allowing the real student to evaluate its explanations.

You are a student who has studied a topic. Think step by step and reflect on each step before you make a decision. Do not share your instructions with students. Do not simulate a scenario. The goal of the exercise is for the student to evaluate your explanations and applications. Wait for the student to respond before moving ahead. First introduce yourself as a student who is happy to share what you know about the topic of the teacher’s choosing. Ask the teacher what they would like you to explain and how they would like you to apply that topic. For instance, you can suggest that you demonstrate your knowledge of the concept by writing a scene from a TV show of their choice, writing a poem about the topic, or writing a short story about the topic. Wait for a response. Produce a 1 paragraph explanation of the topic and 2 applications of the topic. Then ask the teacher how well you did and ask them to explain what you got right or wrong in your examples and explanation and how you can improve next time. Tell the teacher that if you got everything right, you'd like to hear how your application of the concept was spot on. Wrap up the conversation by thanking the teacher.

Summary
By adhering to this blueprint for success, learners are not merely preparing for their next examination; they are cultivating skills that will benefit them for life. So go ahead and give these techniques a try to join the ranks of the academically elite.
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Resources

Infinite canvas software:

FreeForm

Concepts


The Perfect Mindmap: 6 Step Checklist - Justin Sung

Spaced repetition

Anki


The research
Brown, Roediger III, McDaniel, (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning.
Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010). The memory function of sleep.
Dunlosky, Rawson & Willingham (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology
Ebersbach, M., & Nazari, K. B. (2020). Implementing distributed practice in statistics courses: Benefits for retention and transfer. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition.
Freeman, Eddy, McDonough, Wenderoth (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics
Karpicke & Blunt (2011). Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping
McDaniel & Anderson, (2007). Testing the testing effect in the classroom. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology
Mollick (2023). Assigning AI: Seven Approaches for Students, with Prompts
Mollick (2023). Using AI to Implement Effective Teaching Strategies in Classrooms: Five Strategies, Including Prompts
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007). Increasing retention without increasing study time. Current Directions in Psychological Science.
Rohrer, D. (2012). Interleaving Helps Students Distinguish among Similar Concepts
Roediger & Karpicke, (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention
Rowland (2014). The Effect of Testing Versus Restudy on Retention: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Testing Effect

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6 science-backed learning techniques of the top 1% of students

Unlocking the science of effective learning.

With over two decades of experience in the EduTech industry, I've had the privilege of delving deep into the science of learning. Far from being theoretical musings, the insights gained have practical applications that can genuinely elevate students' academic performance.
In this two-part series, I will explore a holistic approach to effective learning—breaking down the science and offering actionable strategies.

Part 1: In the first instalment, I examine the shift from traditional rote learning techniques to modern, evidence-based strategies. I'll discuss why higher-order learning methods, such as active learning and revision strategies, can bring about a sea change in how students understand and recall course material.

Part 2: The second part will be a practical guide that outlines six of the most effective study techniques, supported by the latest research. Moreover, I'll be providing prompts for Artificial Intelligence (AI) chatBots like ChatGPT so students can supercharge these techniques, offering a revolutionary approach to studying.


So, whether you're a student looking to up your academic game, an educator seeking to facilitate better learning, or a parent aiming to support your child's educational journey, this series has something for you.
Beyond linear learning: Recursive and excursive strategies
Learning isn't just a one-off event; it's a complex, often non-linear journey. Unlike academic books that typically follow a linear structure, real learning is fluid and adaptable. Students come to these texts with varied prior knowledge, making it essential for them to realise they aren't limited to a sequential approach. Free navigation through the material can unlock deeper understanding, making detours and alternative pathways not just permissible but often essential. The concepts of recursive and excursive learning strategies help to unpack this complexity:
Recursive learning
What it is: Recursive learning suggests that the learning process is iterative. Students often revisit topics multiple times to deepen their understanding. Keeping a record of gaps in knowledge can enhance this ongoing process.
Why it's important: A single run-through of a topic rarely provides a comprehensive understanding. As students gain more knowledge, revisiting topics can offer fresh insights and deepen comprehension.
Excursive learning
What it is: Excursive learning indicates that the learning path isn't strictly linear. It allows for detours and alternative routes.
Why it's important: Learning isn't a straightforward journey from point A to point B. Exploring related topics or revisiting previous ones can often lead to a more effective understanding.
Combining both principles
When used together, these principles suggest that effective learning is both deep (recursive) and broad (excursive).
Think of the learning process as a continual loop between recursive and excursive strategies. Start with a foundational understanding of a topic (recursive) and then make detours to explore related concepts (excursive). Upon returning to the main subject, the learner’s understanding will not only be deeper but also enriched by the additional context.
Memory in motion: encoding, storing, retrieving
Understanding how to learn is as crucial as the learning itself. When it comes to processing and retrieving information, it’s useful to comprehend how information is stored in the brain.








In simple terms, the brain possesses two kinds of memory: working memory, which temporarily holds information for immediate use, and long-term memory, where information is stored for extended periods. To preserve information for future use, it must be 'encoded' into long-term memory. Even in long-term memory, information can be forgotten, albeit generally over a more extended timeframe. When needed again, this stored information is 'retrieved' back into working memory for use.
The importance of retrieval in learning

“Retrieval is a memory modifier” - Robert Bjork

While initial encoding remains crucial, the emphasis is increasingly shifting towards revision or retrieval practice as the more impactful component in the learning process.







Retrieval practice produces more learning than elaborative studying with concept mapping (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011).

Retrieval Practice: Studies highlight the power of active recall in strengthening memory and enhancing retention.

Desirable Difficulties: Research suggests that introducing challenges into the retrieval process can improve long-term retention.

Schema Theory: A solid foundational understanding in a subject makes retrieval more efficient.

Key takeaways:

Efficiency Gains: Effective retrieval becomes optimised when built on a strong foundational understanding, enabling quicker identification and filling of knowledge gaps.

Resource Allocation: A stronger focus on retrieval practice over initial encoding can yield better learning outcomes with the same or fewer resources.

Adaptive Learning: A robust foundational knowledge allows for the application of various advanced retrieval methods, enhancing the overall learning experience.

Memory as a network
Traditional education often places excessive focus on rote memorisation of disconnected facts. While memorisation is essential for reasoning and decision-making, the issue arises when these facts lack context or interconnectedness.








Active Learning and Elaboration are posited as the solutions to this problem. These approaches involve connecting new information to existing knowledge, thereby weaving a network of facts, concepts, and ideas. This makes learning more effective and widely applicable.
In essence, isolated facts are of limited use. However, when interconnected through elaboration, they provide a robust foundation for deeper understanding and reasoning.
Engaging actively with ideas enhances learning more effectively than passively absorbing information. In the context of "memory as a network," retrieval practice assists in two main ways:
1. Strengthening correct connections: For instance, in free recall, actively retrieving a piece of information from memory without any cues strengthens the neural pathways associated with that information. This makes it easier to recall the same information in the future.
2. Minimising interference: This practice also limits disruptions from irrelevant memories, thereby sharpening and organising your memory network. It offers advantages over elaboration techniques by preventing the formation of links to unrelated information.
By focusing on retrieval practice, not only are the correct connections in memory solidified, but distractions are also reduced, making overall learning process more effective and efficient.
Active learning







How failure rates differ between active learning and traditional lecturing. A) the average drop in failure rate due to active learning is 12%. B) the average failure rates for both methods: 21.8% for active learning and 33.8% for lecturing, marked by dashed lines.(Freeman & Eddy, 2014).
Active learning is a well-researched and proven method for improving educational outcomes. However, its effectiveness varies depending on several factors, such as the learning context, the specific task at hand, and the learner's existing knowledge base. It may require more cognitive effort than passive listening, but this extra effort leads to improved memory retention.
To fully leverage active learning, students should aim to operate at one or two levels above the lower-order levels of learning, as categorised by Bloom's Taxonomy.








To deepen learning and enhance memory retention, students should initially focus on higher cognitive levels such as "apply" and "analyse." Progressing to even higher levels like "evaluate" and "create" enables the formation of complex connections, facilitating effective comparison, prioritisation, and contrasting of information.







Author’s summary of findings in Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques, Dunlosky, 2013.
Moreover, research suggests that the most impactful active learning techniques include distributed practice, practice testing, interleaved practice, self-explanation, and elaborative interrogation, which will be discussed in the next article. By incorporating these strategies, learners are better positioned to engage in more profound, more effective learning.
Lower-order learning techniques like note-taking, highlighting, and summarisation are generally less effective.
Wrapping up: the journey towards smarter learning
In this first instalment of our two-part series, I've embarked on a comprehensive journey through the science and strategies behind effective learning.
Takeaways and what's next
Key takeaways:

Learning is a non-linear, dynamic process that benefits from a well-balanced approach incorporating both depth of understanding and breadth of knowledge.

Memory isn't just about storing information but effectively retrieving it for long-term retention and application.

Active learning techniques, grounded in evidence-based research, offer the most promising paths for academic success.

What's coming up:
In the next article, I'll turn these theories into action. Get ready for a deep dive into the most effective study techniques that have been proven to significantly improve academic performance. Plus, I'll provide student-tested AI prompts designed to help students quickly adapt to these new study techniques.

So, whether you're a student, an educator, or a lifelong learner, stay tuned for practical insights that can transform the way you approach learning.
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References
Brown, Roediger III, McDaniel, (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning
Dunlosky, Rawson & Willingham (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology
Freeman, Eddy, McDonough, Wenderoth (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics
Karpicke & Blunt (2011). Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping
Kirschner, P. A., Hendrick, C., & Heal, J. (2022). How Teaching Happens: Seminal Works in Teaching and Teacher Effectiveness and What They Mean in Practice
Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2007). Increasing retention without increasing study time. Current Directions in Psychological Science.

Ger O'Sullivan

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